Functionalism A Viable Materialist Philosophy Essay

Functionalism A Viable Materialist Philosophy Essay In evaluating the validity of Functionalism as a theory of mind, one must first understand the philosophy of Functionalism itself, and its roots. Functionalism has divided philosophers, and presented below are three of the main arguments against the validity of Functionalism, and these will demonstrate that as a theory of mind, although compelling and thought provoking, Functionalism is ultimately not viable. Functionalist theory has evolved from other philosophical theories of the mind, including Identity Theory of Mind, which in its simplest form states that mental states can be said to be exactly identical to brain states, and some forms of Behaviourist Theory, which suggested, amongst other things, that behaviour can be explained or justified without putting any emphasis on the mind as an instigator, and so behaviour can be rationalised by saying that the sources are not internal, but external. Functionalism can be said to be both and extension and a criticism to these theories. It is something of a middle ground between them. Similar to Behaviourist theory, Functionalism classifies mental states using a behavioural structure, but differs from this theory by suggesting that mental states originate internally. In terms of similarity to the Identity Theory of Mind, both agree that the process of producing a mental begins internally, but Functionalism differs in that it differentiates between the definitions of mental states and brain states. In its basic form, Functionalism can be defined as suggesting that mental states are characterised by their causal properties. In other words, instead of defining a mental state by its features, Functionalism suggests that it should be defined by what it does, or by its function. Expanding on this, Functionalism suggests that two thoughts can be considered identical if all relevant inputs, both those garnered internally and externally, can achieve the same eventual output. One of the first forms of Functionalism was created by Hilary Putnam, who, using the Turing Test, demonstrated his theory of Machine State Functionalism. The Turing Test was a proposal by Alan Turing to discover whether machines can imitate human behaviour in a manner satisfactorily enough that they appear to be able to think, and furthermore, Turing suggested that his test might, with more technological advancement, be able to determine if a machine is in fact able to think. Using the Turing Test, Putnam suggesting that any being possessing a mind could be said to be a Turing machine, and could be controlled using a set of instructions for its operation. Furthermore, early Functionalist theories suggested that a person or machine could be controlled by the input of instructions based on the probability of an outcome, and thus the behaviour would be modified according to the most likely outcome. From this, Putnam created his idea of Functionalism which suggested that sentient beings differ from non sentient beings not because of their physical make up, but because of the way that the internal mental states relate to one another causally to form outputs. However, Putnam later rejected his earlier proposals for Functionalism, citing his Twin Earth thought experiment as justification, and, being that he was instrumental in the formation of Functionalist theory, this gives weight to the argument that Functionalism as a philosophy of mind is not viable. The Twin Earth experiment is based around the idea of two identical worlds, except for one thing, that water is has a different name on the twinned earth. As Yemina Ben-Menahem writes in Hilary Putnam, the two people involved, Oscar and Toscar refer to the liquid water as what is familiar to them in their respective environments. Yet the liquidsare in fact very different. (p.236, ll.23-24). What this thought experiment is suggesting therefore, is that Oscar and Toscars thoughts about water are based on their knowledge of it. By extension, this suggests that for a person to have thoughts about water, they must have experienced it, since the brain itself has no such knowledge of water. Thus , some form of external stimulus must have created the knowledge of water in order for the brain to process it. This refutes the idea in Functionalism that mental states are created internally. A criticism of Functionalism, and indeed of all materialist theories, is that it does not account for the complexities of human emotion and feeling. For example, what is missing in the theory of Functionalism is the allowance for subjective, conscious emotion, or qualia. The argument for the existence of qualia is rooted in the idea that some emotions, namely pleasure and pain, cannot be analysed in an objective manner. If the example of pain is taken from a Functionalist standpoint, its only property is that it creates the appropriate output, such as flinching. However, it is difficult to imagine that this is the only component of pain. From the point of view of a Functionalist, pain is not defined in terms of how it makes a person feel, or what it is made of, but rather only in terms of what is input to create the relevant mental state, and what the output of that is. The problem with using qualia as an argument against the validity of Functionalism as theory of mind is that not all philosophers believe that qualia exists. However, if one agrees to the possibility of the existence of qualia, then this argument is valuable. As Edmund Leo Wright argues in The Case for Qualia, human experience can support the existence of qualiaqualia realism should be our default position. (p.286, ll.11-13). Using this standpoint as a basis, two arguments can be levelled against Functionalism and its validity. The first argument builds on Putnams own objection to his theory of Functionalism, and the relationship between cognitive function and experience. The example of colours can be used to illustrate this point. If a person sees red and calls it red, and another person sees it as green but calls it red, the function is identical, but the personal experience is not. Jaegwon Kim demonstrates this in his book, Physicalism or Something Near Enough, where he writes tha t what a colour looks like to a person should make no difference to the primary cognitive function of [their] visual system, (p173, ll. 2-4). In other words, Kim is arguing that the Functionalist approach does not allow for the variety of subjective experience. He goes on to qualify this: Intrinsic qualities of qualia are not functionalisable and therefore are irreducible, and hence causally impotent. (p.173, ll.9-10) If the existence of qualia cannot be reconciled with the theory of Functionalism, as Kim suggests, then the two must be mutually exclusive. If one assumes that qualia exists, as suggested by Wright, then Functionalism is not a viable theory of mind. Clearly, for this argument to be valid, one must first accept the existence of qualia. As such the argument from a qualia standpoint is not sufficient by itself to invalidate Functionalism if the existence of qualia is not proven. Indeed, the theory of Functionalism can be used as an argument against the existence of qualia , and no explanation for either theory has been issued which does not rely upon unknown factors and speculation. Arguing the case for Functionalisms shortfalls in terms of consciousness, Ned Block proposed a thought experiment in which a functioning mind could be created out of an entire Chinese nation. The point of this thought experiment was to illustrate that the theory of Functionalism fails to directly address the issue of consciousness as a condition of a mental state or functioning mind. As explained by Eric S. Chelstrom in Social Phenomenology: Husserl, Intersubjectivity and Collective Intentionality, If consciousness could be defined in only strictly functional terms, it would be possible for the population of China as a whole to realise the functionality of consciousness. (p.55, ll.17-19). If one were to take the Functionalist view on this matter, then this thought experiment should seem entirely plausible, since in keeping with Functionalist views, it does not matter what the mind is made up of, it matters only that functional roles are realised by different parts, as would occur in the Chinese nation scenario. There should be no need, Functionalism would argue, for the mind to be made up of anything specific. Indeed, providing the roles were carried out, it could be made of anything imaginable. As Ned Block points out, the idea of the Chinese nation as a whole having a collective consciousness, and by extension, the suggestion that a conscious mind could be made up of number of functioning parts of any description, although not necessarily impossible, seems absurd to most people, and as such demonstrates a flaw in the argument for Functionalism as a viable theory of mind. As established previously, there are a number of arguments against Functionalism as a viable theory of mind, and these must be taken into account when weighing up whether one agrees or disagrees with them. However, the basis of the theory of Functionalism, that mental states are only defined by their function, is one that is not easily reconcilable with the wealth of human experience. In fact, the idea that human experience is secondary to functioning mental states is somewhat abhorrent, since it is in human nature to want to believe that consciousness is a meaningful phenomenon and not an illusion created by causal functions. Furthermore, in accepting Functionalism in its entirety, one must also accept that that the machine function model suggested by Putnam could also be viable, and furthermore, that conscious beings are not unique and extraordinary, but can be created with any components, provide the equation of input and output is valid. This is a somewhat undesirable situation, and seems ridiculous as it is based in speculation of unknown factors. Ultimately, it can be said that Functionalism is not a viable theory of mind since it requires a suspension of ones experience of behaviour the knowledge of ones own consciousness, and is based almost completely on conjecture. Matravers, D (2011) Mind (A222 Book 5), Milton Keynes, The Open University Ben-Menahem, Y (2005) Hilary Putnam, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Wright, E (2008) The Case for Qualia, Massachusetts, MIT Press Chelstrom, E (2012) Social Phenomenology: Husserl, Intersubjectivity and Collective Intentionality, Maryland, Lexington Books

Brazil Culture Night Essay

We have a lot of different cultural events going on, but at the International House there is always a culture event every two or three weeks. They usually dedicate a week to a specific culture. They show movies, do lectures, have coffee night and much more. They have different cultures every time. International House had culture events on different cultures like: China, Brazil, Japanese, French, Nepali, German, India, and many more. I have been to many of these culture events. One event in particular that I had been to recently is Brazil culture night. Brazil culture night was held on Wednesday, March 14, 2012. The doors opened at 6:00 but the actual event started at 6:30 and it lasted until 8:30. The event was held in the International House Great Room where all the events are usually held. I was very excited to go to this event because I know very little about Brazil but I have heard a lot and I was very excited to go and find out new things about Brazil. I specially wanted to see the food and the music. And the language, Portuguese. When I first walked in the lobby of International House it was packed! Everywhere there were lots of people. I saw different age group people from kids to late adults. This made me even more exciting, I love to see lots of people coming to event it just makes it even more fun. In the beginning as soon as you go in, you get your food and you find a place to sit. When I saw the food, my mouth got so watery. My Portuguese professor from last semester was serving us food, and she had told me that she made most of this food. This surprised me because I never thought that she could make this great food. The food was amazing, I specifically loved the desert, I did not know what it was called but it was all chocolaty and it was shaped like a round ball. After every one got sattled in, which completely filled the Great Room there was no space for anyone to sit, some people were even standing. And then the program started around 9:30. There were two presentations, one from the Brazilian people itself and another one was a students here who went there to do the study abroad program. Both of these presentations were very interesting, I learned a lot from them. It made me want to go to Brazil to do the study abroad program. The places they went to were just so beautiful. Later they had the band, â€Å"Cafà © Basil† and they played amazing as well. I realized that I really enjoy Portuguese music I never thought that I would like this type of music but I really enjoyed it. Later they had the Jiu-Jitsu demonstration, which was really interesting. I wish I could something like that. And at the end there was some Samba dance demonstrations, which Joanna presented. I was just mind blown when I saw it! They taught people from audience and then some people just joined them. I really enjoyed the Samba dance. They also had a traditional dancing. Overall I really enjoyed myself there. There was not a better way I would have wanted to spend my Wednesday night. I really enjoyed the food and loved the Samba dancing. I am really glad that they pass flyers around campus, post these events on International House website and also they use facebook to get a lot of people coming to these events. They always have a great out come. Sometimes they do not even have enough food left for the helpers. They have volunteers helping during these events. These volunteers are students and most of them are from the club, Asian American Association. I believe that these students do a great job, in weather it if preparing the food or preparing for the event. One another positive thing about these events held at the International House is that, these events allow us to meet new people outside of what we normally see, who our normal friends are. I have made a lot of new friend from going to these events. I have friends from lots of different culture only because I go to these culture events and I see them there. These events also allows us to experience other culture but in our own comfort zone. I also like how the main focus of these events is that, it show people on campus the similarities and differences between cultures in an interesting fun way, which everyone enjoys. I learned a lot from these events. Like I learned to do a little of Samba dancing and some interesting facts and also the food was amazing. I think they should just keep up the good work that they are doing. They should find a bigger room so that everyone could sit and enjoy but other then that it was wonderful. I loved it!

Voluntary Euthanasia

St Peter’s Catholic College, Tuggerah Task: Catholic Ethical Teaching Ethan Fortis 1. Name the Issue (I mark) Euthanasia| 2. Outline the ethical issue (5 marks) Euthanasia, also sometimes known as mercy killing, is the act of painlessly allowing death. This is especially used to relieve the pain of an animal or person suffering incurable and/or severely painful disease. There are 4 different types of euthanasia; these include voluntary, non-voluntary, involuntary, and passive & active euthanasia.Voluntary euthanasia is conducted with the consent of the patient, non-voluntary occurs when the patient is unable to give or deny consent, and involuntary happens when euthanasia is performed without the patient’s consent. All of the above varieties of euthanasia can be divided into passive & active euthanasia. Passive euthanasia refers to the withdrawal of medical treatment with the deliberate intention of hurrying along a terminally ill patient. Active euthanasia occurs when a lethal dose of medication is given to the patient to deliberately take their life. | 3.Provide and briefly explain the main arguments for and against the issue (6marks) There are a number of arguments supporting the use of euthanasia in society. An example of these includes that euthanasia quickly and humanely ends a patient’s life who’s suffering severe and unbearable pain, allowing them to die in dignity. People that are terminally ill don’t deserve to endure the immense pain they go through if they have personally chose to undergo euthanasia. Another argument for euthanasia is the fact that it shortens the grief and suffering the patient’s loved ones go through day after day of the inevitable death dragging on.Loved ones and family of someone who is terminally ill go through a huge amount of psychological issues knowing they aren’t able do to anything about it while a person in their life is slowly and painfully dying. Euthanasia allows these people to rest easy, knowing that their loved one will leave them in a peaceful manor instead of suffering. Also, death is a very private matter and no one else should be allowed to stop you making decisions for yourself, as it is not their life but yours.Euthanasia should be a personal option that should be respected and in cases where the patient is incapable to make the decision for themselves and is suffering greatly, the option should be left to the spouse/close loved one to decide. Although the arguments supporting the act of euthanasia are strong, there are a number of reasons against the issue. An example of this is that allowing euthanasia will lead to less good care for the terminally ill that do not chose it. The Hippocratic Oath is an oath all physicians and other health care professionals swear upon to practise medicine ethically and honestly.Is allowing euthanasia violating this verbal contract? Doctors should do everything they can possibly do to keep patients alive a nd practising euthanasia is going against this. Allowing euthanasia may lead to doctors and nurses becoming less determined to save the lives of the terminally ill, thus disregarding the Hippocratic Oath completely. Also, some people think that implementing euthanasia may send the message across to society that it’s better to be dead than sick/disabled. This suggests that some lives aren’t worth living and this is wrong.Every life is equal, even if the life is of a person who is terminally ill or disabled, mentally or physically. Allowing euthanasia may weaken society’s respect for the value of life. All humans, whether they are disabled, terminally ill, or just different, should be valued no matter what. Human life is sacred and should be lived to the full potential until the natural end of someone’s life. It’s better to be alive than dead, right? | 4. Clearly outline and articulate Catholic Teaching on your issue (making sure you explain the Cath olic Church’s stance on the issue and reasons for its stance).Make sure you use at least one biblical reference and one reference from the Catechism of the Catholic Church. (10 marks) The Catholic Church believes that God gave us both death and life; in return for this we should respect these processes. Conflict arises when there are disagreements of the boundaries. In regards to the act of euthanasia, Pope John Paul II stated in 1995 ‘Euthanasia is a grave violation of the law of God, Since it is the deliberate and morally unacceptable killing of a human person. ’ The Catholic Church has always been strong in its teaching of euthanasia and how they view it as morally wrong.The Church believes that any law allowing euthanasia to be practiced is an intrinsically unjust law. Emphasis has been put on the absolute and unchanging value of the bible commandment ‘You shall not kill’. The Catholic Church does not accept the notion that people have the right to die and should be able to choose whether to accept death or to live, suffering or not. An excerpt from the Catechism of the Catholic Church 2277 reads ‘Whatever its motives and means, direct euthanasia consists in putting an end to the lives of handicapped, sick, or dying persons. It is morally unacceptable.Thus an act or omission which, of itself or by intention, causes death in order to eliminate suffering constitutes a murder gravely contrary to the dignity of the human person and to the respect due to the living God, his Creator. The error of judgment into which one can fall in good faith does not change the nature of this murderous act, which must always be forbidden and excluded’. A number of biblical verses can relate to the views on euthanasia. One of these includes 1 Corinthians 6:19-20 ‘Or do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within you, whom you have from God?You are not your own, for you were bought with a price. So glorify God in your body’. It is believed that each human life is a manifestation of God in the world, a sign of his presence, a trace of his glory. This in mind, a person whom is insisting on death is breaking their relationship with God. | 5. Clearly explain why your issue is an ethical issue for our society. (6 marks) Euthanasia is a debatable issue that questions the very core of morality. It can’t be dealt with by a simple answer, as ‘what is ethical’ is viewed in a variety of different views and opinions amongst society and law.More knowledge and resources are available today than there was back in biblical times. People are entitled to their own opinions and beliefs in the world today, so the issue can be discussed and voiced more regularly. Many questions are asked such as ‘is it wrong to kill? ’, ‘is killing the same as letting die? And the most important one, ‘do we have the right to die? ’ It all comes down to personal vi ews. An atheist’s views on whether we have the right to die or not will be different to a Roman Catholic’s views and vice versa.As there will be ethically right answer to any of these questions, the act of euthanasia should ultimately come down to the individual preference. If a atheist patient who is terminally ill with cancer would like euthanasia to be practised, what right does a Catholic doctor have to say no? | 6. Present an accurately constructed bibliography of all resources used (2 marks) http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Euthanasia 20/2/13 | http://www. ndtv. com/article/india/what-is-passive-euthanasia-89964 20/2/13| http://medical-dictionary. thefreedictionary. com/Active+Euthanasia 20/2/13| http://www. rsrevision. om/GCSE/christian_perspectives/life/euthanasia/for. htm 21/2/13| http://euthanasia. procon. org/view. answers. php? questionID=000198 22/2/13| http://www. catholicnewsagency. com/resources/life-and-family/euthanasia-and-assisted-suicide/euthanasia-c atechism-of-the-catholic-church/ 15/3/13| http://www. openbible. info/topics/euthanasia 15/3/13| http://www. bbc. co. uk/religion/religions/christianity/christianethics/euthanasia_1. shtml 15/3/13| http://www. bbc. co. uk/ethics/euthanasia/against/against_1. shtml#h3 16/3/13| http://www. rsrevision. com/Alevel/ethics/euthanasia/index. htm 17/3/13| | | | |

Globalization s Effect On The World Economy - 1624 Words

Globalization’s Effect on the World’s Economy The economy is based of both producers and consumers, but the customers are the ones that ensure the success of each company. More than half of the world’s population lives in a portion of Southeast Asia (Schuman). The population of Southern Asia is affecting the economy of other countries around the world because so many consumers are located in one condensed area. The Countries of China, India, and Japan consume many American goods that help both countries’ economy grow from recovery of the stock market crash. However, the Asian countries seem to be benefiting more from this globalization of the economy than America. About fifteen years ago, around the time of the nineteen nineties, the Asian countries along with other countries around the world experienced an economic slump that resulted in a financial crisis. This came right after major investing and big spending had occurred in these countries. It is believed that the cause of this economic slump is because of the unpredicted economic growth that came upon these countries so quickly (W.L.Hill). However, it is projected that the Asian countries would be among the first to recover because of their ability to diligently manage money in hard times (Szustek). Chinese people make up most of the Southeastern Asian population, a big part of the economy from there is based off of China. Before the nineteen fifties hit in China, the conditions were not good for people living there.Show MoreRelatedThe Economic Globalization Of India935 Words   |  4 Pages Economic Globalization has swept across the world since the end of WWII. Slowly but surely all the nations across the world have been impacted by Economic Globalization. India for example, has been one of the countries that has been recently hit by the storm, and India’s economy can be seen to still be shooting up. 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